Worldwide, the Hindu population is projected to rise by 34%, from a little over 1 billion to nearly 1.4 billion, roughly keeping pace with overall population growth. Jews, the smallest religious group for which separate projections were made, are expected to grow 16%, from a little less than 14 million in 2010 to 16.1 million worldwide in 2050.
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At the same time, however, the unaffiliated are expected to continue to increase as a share of the population in much of Europe and North America. In the United States, for example, the unaffiliated are projected to grow from an estimated 16% of the total population (including children) in 2010 to 26% in 2050.
Muslims in 2050 are expected to make up more than 50% of the population in 51 countries, two more than in 2010, as both the Republic of Macedonia and Nigeria are projected to gain Muslim majorities. But Nigeria also will continue to have a very large Christian population. Indeed, Nigeria is projected to have the third-largest Christian population in the world by 2050, after the United States and Brazil.
Long-standing scaphoid nonunion, scaphoid malunion, and chronic scapholunate dissociation result in malalignment of the carpal bones, progressive carpal collapse, instability, and osteoarthritis of the wrist. The most commonly used procedures to treat scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse (SNAC) and scapholunate advanced collapse (SLAC) wrists are the four-corner fusion (4CF) and the proximal row carpectomy (PRC). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical outcome of a different treatment modality: radial styloidectomy and scaphocapitolunate (SCL) arthrodesis. This treatment option is chosen in an effort to maintain the joint contact surface and load transmission across the radiocarpal joint. We conducted a retrospective review of 20 patients (average age 62 years, range: 27 to 75 years) treated from 1994 to 2010. Seven patients were treated for SNAC, 12 patients for SLAC wrists, and 1 for degenerative joint disease following a transscapho-transcapitate perilunar dislocation. Sixteen patients had Herbert screw fixation, and four had Spider plate fixation. All patients had autologous bone graft used for the arthrodesis. The mean follow-up was 4.6 years (range: 2 to 9.6 years). Patients were evaluated clinically and radiographically. Nineteen of 20 arthrodeses healed on an average of 9.6 weeks. One patient was reoperated 8 months after the initial operation with salvage of the SCL arthrodesis with a spider plate with an adequate result. The mean active flexion-extension arc was 70 degrees and the radioulnar deviation arc was 23 degrees. Pain decreased in all patients, 13 of whom were pain free postoperatively. The average postoperative disabilities of arm, shoulder, and hand score was 24. Radiographically, neither radiolunate nor radioscaphoid arthritis was noted on follow-up. SCL arthrodesis with radial styloidectomy resulted in an adequate residual range of motion and pain relief. This method preserves the normal ulnar sided joints of the carpus and maintains a more physiologic joint surface for radiocarpal load sharing.
In 2010, the Bureau of Justice Assistance funded the National PREA Resource Center to continue to provide federally funded training and technical assistance to states and localities, and to serve as a single-stop resource for research and tools for all those in the field working to come into compliance with the federal standards.
A variety of authors (Clark and Watson 1995; DeVellis 2003; Nunnally 1967; Pasquali 2010) have agreed that the scale development process involves complex and systematic procedures that require theoretical and methodological rigor. According to these authors, the scale development process can be carried out in three basic steps.
Regarding step 1, item generation, our results show that, although several studies used exclusively deductive methods (e.g., Henderson-King and Henderson-King 2005; Kim et al. 2011), the majority (e.g., Bakar and Mustaffa 2013; Uzunboylu and Ozdamli 2011) combined deductive and inductive methods, a combination consistent with the recommended strategy for the creation of new measures (DeVellis 2003). These findings, however, differ from previous critical reviews of scale development practices, which found that most of the reported studies used exclusively deductive methods (Hinkin 1995; Kapuscinski and Masters 2010; Ladhari 2010). This is particularly important since the quality of generated items depends on the way that the construct is defined. Failing to adequately define the conceptual domain of a construct causes several problems related to poor construct definition, leading to, for example, (a) confusion about what the construct does and does not refer to, including the similarities and differences between it and other constructs that already exist in the field, (b) indicators that may either be deficient or contaminated, and (c) invalid conclusions about relationships with other constructs (MacKenzie et al. 2011). Considering that item generation may be the most important part of the scale development process, future measures should be developed using the appropriate definition of the conceptual domain based on the combination of both deductive and inductive approaches.
Our results suggest that literature review was the most widely used deductive method (e.g., Bolton and Lane 2012; Henderson-King and Henderson-King 2005). This is consistent with the views of several other researchers who have systematically reviewed scales (Bastos et al. 2010; Ladhari 2010; Sveinbjornsdottir and Thorsteinsson 2008). Nevertheless, this finding differs from another study (Kapuscinski and Masters 2010) that found that the most common deductive strategies were reading works by spiritual leaders, theory written by psychologists, and discussion among authors. Literature review should be considered central for the enumeration of the constructs. It also serves to clarify the nature and variety of the target construct content. In addition, literature reviews help to identify existing measures that can be used as references to create new scales (Clark and Watson 1995; DeVellis 2003). In this sense, future research should consider the literature review as the initial and necessary deductive step foundational to building a new scale.
Among the studies than used factor analysis, the majority chose to use EFA (e.g., Bakar and Mustaffa 2013; Turker 2009). Similar to our findings, Bastos et al. (2010) and Ladhari (2010) found EFA to be the more commonly utilized construct validity method when compared to CFA. EFA has extensive value because it is considered to be effective in identifying the underlying latent variables or factors of a measure by exploring relationships among observed variables. However, it allows for more subjectivity in the decision-making process than many other statistical procedures, which can be considered a problem (Roberson et al. 2014).
In comparison with at least one previous study (Prados 2007), our findings reflect some potential item limitations. Firstly, items that were ambiguous or difficult to answer were the main weaknesses reported by Gottlieb et al. (2014). On this issue, the literature dealing with the necessary caution in wording the items is extensive. For example, items must clearly define the problem being addressed, must be as simple as possible, express a single idea, and use common words that reflect the vocabulary level of the target population. Items should not be inductors or have alternative or underlying assumptions. They must be free of generalizations and estimates, and be written to ensure the variability of responses. In writing the items, the researcher should avoid using fashionable expressions and colloquialisms or other words or phrases that impair understanding for groups of varying ages, ethnicities, religions, or genders. Furthermore, the items should be organized properly. For example, the opening questions should be simple and interesting to win the trust of the subjects. The most delicate, complex, or dull questions should be asked at the end of the sequence (Clark and Watson 1995; Malhotra 2004; Pasquali 2010).
Furthermore, Cicero et al. (2010) reported that the main limitation of their study was the fact that none of the items were reverse-scored. Although some methodologists claim that reverse scoring is necessary to avoid acquiescence among participants, this advice should be taken with caution. There are reports that the reverse-scored items may be confusing to participants, that the opposite of a construct reverse-scored may be fundamentally different than the construct, that reverse-scored items tend to be the worst fitting items in factor analyses, or that the factor structure of scales includes a factor with straightforward wording compared to a reverse-scored factor (Cicero et al. 2010). Awareness of these issues is necessary for future researchers to choose between avoiding acquiescence among participants or preventing a number of other problems related to the use of reverse scores. 2ff7e9595c
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